We’re working to understand the lunar surface using geology. A variety of different events can all change the Moon. Impacts, such as asteroid, micrometeor,\u00a0 and space craft impacts, can make dramatic craters, melt parts of the surface, and even carve out boulders that can get flung great distances. Space weathering, caused by the Sun’s particles and light, alters molecultes on the surface of them (sometimes changing their colors!) and can knock neutrons and other particles out of their atoms. Ancient techtonic motions and volcanic eruptions also leave their marks in the form of faults, mountains, lava fields, and other features. Our study of these features not only\u00a0<\/p>\n
In this project, we’re focusing on impact related features.\u00a0<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/Schmidt-Boulder.jpg” title_text=”Schmidt-Boulder” show_bottom_space=”off” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”12px” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
Geologist Harrison Schmidt (Apollo 17) is shown working on a boulder. Credit: NASA<\/p>\n
[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” background_color=”#bdc4cf” custom_padding=”20px|20px|20px|20px|true|false” border_radii=”on|10px|10px|10px|10px” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/learn-wp.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/06200746\/Moon.png” alt=”Cartoon Moons by Noel Ruppenthal” title_text=”Moon” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” width=”60%” module_alignment=”center” custom_margin=”10px|10px|10px|10px|true|true” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_heading title=”Lunar Fast Facts” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” title_font=”|700|||||||” title_text_align=”center” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_heading title=”Related Projects” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h4″ title_font=”|600|||||||” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_text ul_item_indent=”28px” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_line_height=”1.3em” ul_line_height=”1.5em” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
- \n
- Lunar Features: <\/strong><\/a>Map craters, boulders, and rocks<\/li>\n
- Lunar Flows: <\/strong><\/a>Trace flows and channels, cracks, & ridges<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_heading title=”Data Source” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h4″ title_font=”|600|||||||” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_text ul_item_indent=”28px” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_line_height=”1.3em” ul_line_height=”1.5em” custom_margin=”||20px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” hover_enabled=”0″ global_colors_info=”{}” sticky_enabled=”0″]<\/p>\n
- \n
- Mission: <\/b>Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter<\/li>\n
- Camera: <\/b>Narrow Angle Camera<\/li>\n
- Resolution:<\/strong> ~0.5m \/ 1.5 ft per pixel<\/li>\n
- Image Credit:<\/strong> NASA\/Arizona State University\/Intuitive Machines (link<\/a><\/span>)<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Project images are 450 pixels across. This makes them a little more than twice as long as a regulation soccer field.<\/em><\/p>\n
[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_heading title=”Related Pages” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h4″ title_font=”|600|||||||” title_text_align=”left” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_text ul_item_indent=”28px” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_line_height=”1.3em” ul_line_height=”1.5em” custom_margin=”||20px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
- \n
- Explore the Moon: Overview<\/a><\/li>\n
- Learn More about the Lunar Data Set<\/a><\/li>\n
- Meet the Lunar Research Team<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][et_pb_row column_structure=”2_3,1_3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” border_radii=”on|10px|10px|10px|10px” saved_tabs=”all” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_column type=”2_3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_heading title=”Features we’re mapping” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” title_level=”h3″ title_font=”|700|||||||” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_heading][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_css_free_form=”selector img {|| border: 1px solid #000;|| border-radius: 10px;|| margin-top: 5px;||}” border_color_all=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/button-crater.png\")
Crater<\/strong>: These bowl-shaped depressions on rocky and icy worlds are formed when an object hits the surface. The largest craters form during asteroid impacts. Smaller craters form both from smaller asteroid impacts and from the impact of boulders that are sent flying during large impacts. When the formation of one crater causes another crater to form it’s called a secondary crater.<\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” min_height=”95px” custom_margin=”||||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
Craters<\/em>
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-crater-1.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-crater-2.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-crater-4.png\")
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![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-crater-6.png\")
<\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#0c71c3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_divider][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_css_free_form=”selector img {|| border: 1px solid #000;|| border-radius: 10px;|| margin-top: 5px;||}” border_color_all=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/button-boulder.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/Buttons-12.png\")
<\/strong>Boulders & Rocks<\/strong>: These chucks of the Moon are often formed when a large asteroid excavates a crater and tosses material ranging in size from dust and gravel to many-meter across boulders. Some boulders may be found partially embedded in lava flows, or broken into pieces where they lay on the lunar surface. The rocks and boulders caught in lava flows allow us to measure various properties of the lava, such as its viscosity. When you measure the long axis of the boulder, you are helping us sort them by size. Below a certain size, however, the size measurements aren’t as important, so we just mark “rocks'” centers.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_padding=”0px||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
Boulders<\/em>
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-boulder-1.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-boulder-2.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-boulder-4.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-boulder-5.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-boulder-6.png\")
<\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” min_height=”115px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_padding=”0px||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
Rocks<\/em>
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-rock-4.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-rock-5.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-rock-3.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-rock-2.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-rock-1.png\")
<\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#0c71c3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_divider][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_css_free_form=”selector img {|| border: 1px solid #000;|| border-radius: 10px;|| margin-top: 5px;||}” border_color_all=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/Buttons-15.png\")
Flows & Channels<\/strong>: The immense energies of asteroid impacts have the capacity to melt the lunar surface. This molten rock can flow across the cracter walls, floors, and surroundings, leaving behind both channels where it cut through the rock like a river, as well as tongues of lava where it comes to rest atop the surroundings. You may even see overlapping flows where a newer band of lava moves over an old band.\u00a0<\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” min_height=”85px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_padding=”0px||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
Flows & Channels<\/em>
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-margin-1.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-margin-1-marked.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-margin-3.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-margin-3-marked.png\")
<\/em><\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#0c71c3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_divider][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_css_free_form=”selector img {|| border: 1px solid #000;|| border-radius: 10px;|| margin-top: 5px;||}” border_color_all=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”]
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/Buttons-14.png\")
Wrinkle Ridges<\/strong>: This feature is so rare you may never see one in this data set! When cooling flows begin to solidify, molten flows may begin to wrinkle up and over stalled out flows in front of it.[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” min_height=”85px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_padding=”0px||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]Wrinkle Ridges<\/em>
\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-ridge-1.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-ridge-1-marked.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-ridge-3.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-ridge-3-marked.png\")
<\/em>[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#0c71c3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_divider][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_css_free_form=”selector img {|| border: 1px solid #000;|| border-radius: 10px;|| margin-top: 5px;||}” border_color_all=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/Buttons-13.png\")
Cracks<\/strong>: Just as the name implies, cracks are places where the surface of a lunar flow cracked open. This happens as the material cools and tried to contract. The splits in the rock are left behind where material contracted.\u00a0<\/p>\n[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” min_height=”85px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_padding=”0px||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”]Cracks<\/em>
\n![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-cracks-1.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-cracks-1-marked.png\")
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/example-cracks-3.png\")
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<\/em>[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_divider color=”#0c71c3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” custom_margin=”||0px||false|false” custom_padding=”||0px||false|false” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_divider][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”16px” custom_margin=”||10px||false|false” custom_css_free_form=”selector img {|| border: 1px solid #000;|| border-radius: 10px;|| margin-top: 5px;||}” border_color_all=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\nIn this project you’ll be mapping Tycho crater (below, Credit: NASA) and the nearby and smaller Little Lowell crater. Both of these craters are rich in melt deposits and littered with smaller craters formed both through secondary impacts and by smaller asteroids that have collided with the Moon’s surface over the years and millenia.<\/p>\n
[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/Tycho_LRO-rect.png” title_text=”Tycho_LRO-rect” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” border_radii=”on|20px|20px|20px|20px” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][\/et_pb_column][et_pb_column type=”1_3″ _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” background_color=”RGBA(255,255,255,0)” custom_padding=”20px|20px|20px|20px|true|false” border_radii=”on|10px|10px|10px|10px” global_colors_info=”{}”][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/content_highsun_ano.png” title_text=”content_highsun_ano” show_bottom_space=”off” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” border_radii=”on|20px|20px|20px|20px” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”12px” text_line_height=”1.4em” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
This young crater is littered with rocks and boulders, with sprays of ejecta surrounding it. (LROC NAC frame M1287235559L<\/span>). Learn more here.<\/a><\/strong><\/span> Credit: NASA\/GSFC\/Arizona State University<\/p>\n
[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/content_M1258193408_LRmos.1100x1100_wall.png” title_text=”content_M1258193408_LRmos.1100x1100_wall” show_bottom_space=”off” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” border_radii=”on|20px|20px|20px|20px” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”12px” text_line_height=”1.4em” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
This image is taken from the side of Giordano Bruno crater. You can see how the crater floor is littered with rocks, boulders, and debris from landslides. (LROC NAC frame M1258193408LR<\/span>). Learn more here.<\/a><\/strong><\/span> Credit: NASA\/GSFC\/Arizona State University<\/p>\n
[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/M103216633LE_thumb.png” title_text=”M103216633LE_thumb” show_bottom_space=”off” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” border_radii=”on|20px|20px|20px|20px” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”12px” text_line_height=”1.4em” global_colors_info=”{}”]A channel can be seen splitting and coming back together as it cuts throughthis image. If you look carefully, you’ll also see cracks spiderwebbing throughout the landscape (LROC NAC frame M103216633L). Learn more here.<\/a><\/strong><\/span> Credit: NASA\/GSFC\/Arizona State University[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/M181102837R_thumb4.png” title_text=”M181102837R_thumb4″ show_bottom_space=”off” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” border_radii=”on|20px|20px|20px|20px” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”12px” text_line_height=”1.4em” global_colors_info=”{}”]<\/p>\n
Rare wrinkles (see white arrow) formed on a lava flow in Mare Frigoris (LROC NAC frame M181102837R). Learn more here.<\/a><\/strong><\/span> Credit: NASA\/GSFC\/Arizona State University<\/p>\n
[\/et_pb_text][et_pb_image src=”https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/content_m125650563l_thumb.png” title_text=”content_m125650563l_thumb” show_bottom_space=”off” _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” border_radii=”on|20px|20px|20px|20px” global_colors_info=”{}”][\/et_pb_image][et_pb_text _builder_version=”4.27.4″ _module_preset=”default” text_font_size=”12px” text_line_height=”1.4em” global_colors_info=”{}”]Cracks in lunar lava may appear similar to those in dried mud here on earth, but they have a very different scale. This image is 720 m across and littered with boulders (LROC NAC frame M125650563L). Learn more here.<\/a><\/strong><\/span> Credit: NASA\/GSFC\/Arizona State University[\/et_pb_text][\/et_pb_column][\/et_pb_row][\/et_pb_section]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
Background We’re working to understand the lunar surface using geology. A variety of different events can all change the Moon. Impacts, such as asteroid, micrometeor,\u00a0 and space craft impacts, can make dramatic craters, melt parts of the surface, and even carve out boulders that can get flung great distances. Space weathering, caused by the Sun’s […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":123,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"on","_et_pb_old_content":"\n
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<\/figure>\n","_et_gb_content_width":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-125","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/125","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=125"}],"version-history":[{"count":20,"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/125\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":424,"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/125\/revisions\/424"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/123"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/mappers.psi.edu\/learn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=125"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}} - Learn More about the Lunar Data Set<\/a><\/li>\n
- Camera: <\/b>Narrow Angle Camera<\/li>\n
- Lunar Flows: <\/strong><\/a>Trace flows and channels, cracks, & ridges<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n